ahrar-140504171614050417160342CMV Verlagkhoffmann@cmv-verlag.comCMV VerlagAhrar Private Law Research Journalahrar2821-2703382026612 Reza Jahan PanahQasem Qasemi Bivarzani38202611510.66224/ahrar.53271.6.12.http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/53271http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53271http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53271http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53271http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53271http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53271http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53271http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/532711. Badini, H., & Panahi, P. (2012). A critique of the 2007 law on protection of automobile consumers’ rights. Journal of Private Law Research, 1(1), 39–64. [In Persian] 2. Badini, H. (1997). The impact of industrial and scientific progress on the evolution of civil liability (Master’s thesis, University of Tehran). [In Persian] 3. Bozorgmehr, D. (2006). Civil liability of goods manufacturers. Justice Legal Journal, 70(54), 37–58. [In Persian] 4. Carperiler, N. P. (2006). An ancient law of car. Whittier Law Review, 26(3).5. Denis, S. (2001). An introduction to product liability law (pp. 1–13). Retrieved August 18, 2021, from https://www.which.co.uk/consumer-rights/regulation/consumer-rights-act6. Dobbs, D. B. (2001). The law of torts (1st reprint ed.). West Group.7. Ebrahimi, S. N. (2007). Liability for defective products and consumer protection: A legal analysis in three leading legal systems. Law and Political Science Review, 2(5). [In Persian] 8. Eskandari, H. (2016). Foundations of causation in civil liability (Doctoral dissertation, University of Tehran). [In Persian] 9. Ghasemi Hamed, A., & Dobarji Khaledi, P. (2012). Liability for damages caused to consumers by defective or dangerous goods in current laws and regulations. Economic Research, 12(2), 169–186. [In Persian] 10. Gunn, A. (2005). Studies in American tort law. Carolina Academic Press.11. Harpwood, V. (2003). Modern tort law. Cavendish Publishing Limited.12. Hamzeh Hoveyda, M., & Kaveh, R. (2023). A comparative study of civil liability of automobile manufacturers regarding damages caused by non-compliance with technical standards in Iranian and English law. Third International Conference on Humanities, Educational Sciences, Law and Social Sciences. [In Persian] 13. Ismailzadeh, H. (1995). A look at consumer rights (1st ed.). Publication and Planning Organization. [In Persian] 14. Jafari Langroudi, M. J. (2024). Legal terminology (38th ed.). Ganj Danesh. [In Persian] 15. Katouzian, N. (2019). Non-contractual obligations: Civil liability (General rules, Vol. 1). Ganj Danesh. [In Persian] 16. Korkova, B. (2024). Introduction to English tort law.17. Le Tourneau, P. (2005). Responsabilité civile professionnelle (2nd ed.). Dalloz.18. Makrami, H., & Taghizadeh, E. (2017). Civil liability of manufacturers and suppliers of defective automobiles during the warranty period. Economic Law Encyclopedia, 24(12). [In Persian] 19. Parsa, N. (2023). A comparative study of the elements of civil liability of automobile manufacturers in Iranian, English, and American law. First International Conference on Law, Advocacy, and Humanities. [In Persian] 20. Barikloo, A. (2008). Civil liability (2nd ed.). Mizan Publishing. [In Persian] 21. McConnell, A. (2004). Overview: UK.22. McGuireWoods. (2021). US automotive products liability. Retrieved August 19, 2021, from https://www.mcguirewoods.com/news-resources/publications/us-automotive-products-liability.pdf Hediyeh Fallah Mostafa Ghafoorian Nejad382026163410.66224/ahrar.53272.6.12.16http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/53272http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53272http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53272http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53272http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53272http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53272http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53272http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/532721. Aghabbasi, R., & Davari Marghazi, M. (2025). Civil liability arising from service providers in cyberspace with emphasis on online stores. State and Law Quarterly, (2), 23–42. [In Persian] 2. Ahmadi, A. (2019). Civil liability of online stores in supplying defective goods. Electronic Commerce Law Research, (4), 53–72. [In Persian] 3. Ansari, M., & Taheri, M. A. (2009). Encyclopedia of private law (Vol. 3). Tehran: Jangal Publications. [In Persian] 4. Askari, S. (2021). Liability for compensation of damages caused by defective products. International Journal of Nations Research, 6(68). [In Persian] 5. Civil Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran. (1928). [In Persian] 6. Electronic Commerce Law of the Islamic Republic of Iran. (2003). [In Persian] 7. Hosseini Moghaddam, S. H., Taleghan Ghafari, M., & Ayubi, S. (2023). Civil liability of online stores in Iranian law with a comparative study in the European Union. Private Law Research, 12(44), 255–284. [In Persian] 8. Jafari Langroudi, M. J. (2009). Expanded legal terminology (Vol. 2). Tehran: Ganj-e Danesh Publications. [In Persian] 9. Karimi, N. (2020). Electronic commerce law and the liability of online stores. Tehran: Mizan Publications. [In Persian] 10. Motahari, S. M. (2016). Islamic jurisprudence of transactions: Gharar and Tadlis. Tehran: Islamic University Press. [In Persian] 11. Moshfegh, A. (2019). Jurisprudential and legal analysis of adhesion contracts in electronic commerce with emphasis on consumer protection. [In Persian] 12. Qasemi Hamed, A., & Khaledi Dobarji, P. (2012). Liability for damages to consumers of defective goods. Economic Research Quarterly, 12(2), 169–186. [In Persian] 13. Salehi, J., & Ebrahimi, Y. (2012). Foundations and scope of the obligation to provide information to consumers of goods. Journal of Civil Law Research, (1). [In Persian] 14. Sharafkhah, B., & Fallah Khariki, M. (2025). Civil liability for damages arising from online stores in the Iranian legal system. Journal of Legal and Judicial Studies, (4), 531–541. [In Persian] 15. Tabatabaei, H. (2018). Digital misrepresentation (tadlis) in electronic contracts. Journal of Contemporary Fiqh and Law, (2), 89–105. [In Persian] Afrooz Gholamzad Kohnesari Mohsen KhakzadMostafa Khazal Vashi 382026355110.66224/ahrar.53273.6.12.35http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/53273http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53273http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53273http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53273http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53273http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53273http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53273http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/532731. Andenas, M., & Fairgrieve, D. (2015). Courts and comparative law. New York, United States of America: Oxford University Press.2. Assis, J. de S. (2016). The law of donation and the market: Scottish, Portuguese and French perspectives. Scotland: University of Glasgow.3. Bar, C. V., & Clive, E. (2009). Principles, definitions and model rules of European civil private law. Munich, Germany: European Law Publishers.4. Emami, H. (2014). Civil law (Vol. 2). Tehran: Eslamiyeh Publications. [In Persian] 5. Helli, A. (1993). Mukhtalaf al‑Shia fi ahkam al‑sharia (Vol. 2). Qom: Islamic Publishing Institute. [In Persian] 6. Iran Civil Code. (1928). [In Persian] 7. Jafari Langroudi, M. (2013). Annotation of the civil code. Tehran: Ganj Danesh Publications. [In Persian] 8. Katoozian, N. (2011). The civil code in the current legal order. Tehran: Mizan Publishing. [In Persian] 9. Keshavarzi, M. (2015). Similarities and differences between the civil law of Iran and France (1st ed.). Tehran: Majd Publishing. [In Persian] 10. Mohammadi Moghaddam, P. (2003). Exempt property from debt. Journal of the Bar Association, Winter Issue, No. 191. [In Persian] 11. Sadeghi Moghaddam, M. (2012). Change in contractual conditions. Tehran: Mizan Publishing. [In Persian] 12. Safaei, H. (2010). Civil law: Persons and property. Tehran: Mizan Publishing. [In Persian] 13. Shoarian, A. (2010). Principles of European contract law and Iranian law. Tabriz: Forouzeh Publishing. [In Persian] 14. Soghaei, H. (2008). General rules of contracts (Vol. 2). Tehran: Mizan Publishing. [In Persian] 15. Tahanzadeh, H. (2004). Revocation of gift and irrevocable gifts in Iranian law with a comparative study in Egyptian law (Master’s thesis). Tehran: Imam Sadiq University. [In Persian] 16. Taghizadeh, A., & Yavari, S. (n.d.). A comparative study of revocation of gift in Iranian law and the draft civil code of the European Union. [In Persian] 17. Tavakkoli, M. (2020). Collection of civil law. Tehran: Maktoub Publishing. [In Persian] Seyyedeh Zeynab sadatMortazaviSayyed Ali Jabbar Golbaghi Masouleh382026526710.66224/ahrar.53274.6.12.52http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/53274http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53274http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53274http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53274http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53274http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53274http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53274http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/532741. Almasi, N. (2000). Conflict of laws. Tehran: University Publishing Center. [In Persian] 2. Almasi, N. (2008). Private international law. Tehran: Mizan. [In Persian] 3. Asadi, L. S. (2005). Critique of law and practice in the implementation of divorce. Women’s Book, Tehran, No. 26 (Winter). [In Persian] 4. Danaye Elmi, M. (1995). Causes of divorce in Iranian law and religious minorities. Tehran: Nozohour Press. [In Persian] 5. Ebrahimi, J. (2016). Examining the approach of family laws toward the issue of divorce. Islamic Research Center of the Islamic Consultative Assembly. [In Persian] 6. Fayz, A. (1999). Foundations of jurisprudence and principles. Tehran: University of Tehran Press. [In Persian] 7. Gavahi, Z. (1994). Examination of women’s rights in the issue of divorce. Islamic Propagation Organization. [In Persian] 8. Habibi Tabar, M. J. (2016). Family law: Facilitation of divorce or divorce reduction? Examining the approach of family laws toward the issue of divorce. Islamic Research Center of the Islamic Consultative Assembly. [In Persian] 9. Jafari Langroudi, M. J. (1989). Legal terminology. Tehran: Ganj-e Danesh. [In Persian] 10. Karami, M. T. (2014). The social construction of divorce in Iran. Journal of Gender and Family Studies, 1(1), Autumn–Winter. [In Persian] 11. Katouzian, N. (1999). Civil law of family (Vol. 1). Tehran: Bahman Barna Publications. [In Persian] 12. Mahdikhani, Z. (1993). Selfish parents, abandoned children. Tehran: Peykan Publishing. [In Persian] Maryam LotfmaneshAhmad Pour Ebrahim382026688010.66224/ahrar.53275.6.12.68http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/53275http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53275http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53275http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53275http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53275http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53275http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53275http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/532751. Abedini, F. (2023). Interprofessional communication challenges in nursing. [In Persian] 2. Abdi, M., et al. (n.d.). Examining deficiencies in the payment and salary system of nurses in public hospitals and proposing solutions. [In Persian] 3. Alirahmaei, N. (2002). Law and the nurse. Salemi Publishing. [In Persian] 4. Ayazi, Z., & Khosravi, N. (n.d.). Law and nursing reporting. [In Persian] 5. Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran. (1979). [In Persian] 6. Fallah, M. (n.d.). Nurses’ liability in Iranian law: Medical negligence, duties, and penalties. [In Persian] 7. Festa, J. (1998). Rights and responsibilities of nurses (M. Abbasi, Trans.). Tabib Publishing.8. Goudarzi, M. (2017). The position and impact of the Nursing Organization in supporting nurses’ rights in public hospitals. [In Persian] 9. Haj Bagheri, M., et al. (n.d.). Nurses’ perception of the concept of professional support. [In Persian] 10. Jahanimoghadam, F. (n.d.). Legal challenges in Iran’s health system: Barriers and legal solutions. [In Persian] 11. Kharashadizadeh, F., Farahdel, M., & Pourbarat, S. (2024). Occupational stress in nursing: Challenges and management solutions. [In Persian] 12. Labor Law of the Islamic Republic of Iran. (1990). Islamic Consultative Assembly. [In Persian] 13. Law on Establishment of the Nursing Organization of the Islamic Republic of Iran. (2001). [In Persian] 14. Narimani, K. (2023). Nursing and its legal challenges. Islamic Azad University, Maragheh Branch. [In Persian] 15. Productivity Improvement Act for Clinical Staff of the Health System. (2009). Islamic Consultative Assembly. [In Persian] 16. Regulation for the Implementation of Nursing Services Tariff System. (2021). Ministry of Health and Medical Education. [In Persian] 17. Tavakoli, N., & Zafari, G. (n.d.). The nurse and the law. [In Persian] 18. Toughian Chaharsoughi, N., et al. (2010). The role of professional laws and regulations in improving the quality of nursing services. [In Persian] 19. Civil Service Management Law. (2007). Islamic Consultative Assembly. [In Persian] 20. Javanbakhtian, R. (n.d.). Comparison of strategies for improving the quality of nursing services from the perspective of nursing students and nurses working in teaching hospitals in Shahrekord. [In Persian] Mohsen Pour AliMohsen Pourmohammad3820268110510.66224/ahrar.53282.6.12.81http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/53282http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53282http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53282http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53282http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53282http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53282http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53282http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/532821. Ahangaran, M. R., & Saeidi, M. (2016). Reconsideration of the foundations of the legitimacy of innominate contracts with a comparative approach in Islamic law. Danesh-e Hoquq-e Madani, 5(2), 1–15. [In Persian] 2. Amini, M., & Sayyadi, S. (2022). An analysis of the legal and jurisprudential status of clinical trial contracts. Law of New Technologies, 3(5), 1–18. [In Persian] 3. Asadi-Nejad, S. M. (2014). Principles of civil law (Vol. 3). Tehran: Haghigh Legal Publications. [In Persian] 4. Askari, M. (2018). The effect of mutual mistake on contractual obligations in Iranian law. Journal of Legal Studies, 28, 209–223. [In Persian] 5. Badini, H., & Banshi, M. (2021). Foundations of the human right over one’s own body: The labor theory and the “body for body” theory. Judiciary Law Journal, 85(113), 45–67. [In Persian] 6. Chaqamirza, S. (2017). Analysis of the characteristics of nullity in contracts. Qanunyar Quarterly Journal, 1, 81–100. [In Persian] 7. Falah-Mahmoudi, J., Soltan-Ahmadi, J., & Shoarian-Sattari, E. (2020). The proprietary nature of human body organs in light of Article 75 of the Citizens’ Rights Charter and Islamic jurisprudence regarding organ sales. Medical Law Quarterly, 525–536. [In Persian] 8. Gharibeh, A. (2008). The scope of the impact of mistake in contracts. Law Quarterly, 40(101), 203–217. [In Persian] 9. Imami, S. H. (1956). Civil law (Vol. 1) (2nd ed.). Tehran: University of Tehran Press. [In Persian] 10. Katouzian, N. (2010). Civil law course (Vol. 2): Family, children, parent–child relations. Tehran: Enteshar Joint Stock Company. [In Persian] 11. Katouzian, N. (2011). Preliminary course of civil law: Juridical acts (contracts and unilateral acts) (4th ed.). Tehran: Enteshar Joint Stock Company. [In Persian] 12. Rajai, F., Mohaghegh Damad, S. M., & Mousavi, S. M. S. (2011). A jurisprudential and legal study of the human relationship with one’s own body organs. Journal of Islamic Jurisprudence and Law, 2, 45–62. [In Persian] 13. Rahpeyk, H. (1996). Defects of will and consent: Mistake in contracts. Judicial Legal Perspectives, 2, 43–56. [In Persian] 14. Roshandel, G. (2023). Ethical considerations in research on human-origin biological data and samples. Encyclopedia of Islamic Medical Ethics, 1, 1–20. [In Persian] 15. Saberi, H., Ahangaran, M. R., & Sadeghi Bahmani, S. (2013). A jurisprudential–legal reexamination of separating intention from consent. Teachings of Civil Jurisprudence, 7, 27–52. [In Persian] 16. Safaei, S. H. (2019). Introductory course of civil law (Vol. 2): General rules of contracts (31st ed.). Tehran: Mizan Legal Foundation. [In Persian] 17. Safaei, S. H., & Emami, A. (2017). A concise guide to family law (47th ed.). Tehran: Mizan Legal Foundation. [In Persian] 18. Shahidi, M. (2011). Civil law (Vol. 3): Obligations (15th ed.). Tehran: Majd Publications. [In Persian] 19. Talebi, M., Moradkhani, A., & Shafiei, S. M. (2020). An examination of the jurisprudential and legal foundations of human ownership over the body. Fiqh Research, 16, 173–192. [In Persian] 20. Legal and Regulatory Sources [In Persian] 21. Executive By-law of the Law on Organ Transplantation from Deceased or Brain-Dead Patients. (2002).22. Guidelines on General Ethics in Medical Research Involving Human Subjects in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Ministry of Health and Medical Education. (2013). [In Persian] 23. Directive on the Formation, Procedures, and Duties of Research Ethics Committees. Ministry of Health and Medical Education. (2020). [In Persian] Mohammadreza Marzban MoghadamAminNajafianFatemeh Shadhan38202610612010.66224/ahrar.53283.6.12.106http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/53283http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53283http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53283http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53283http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53283http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53283http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53283http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/532831. Alipour, Z. (2017). Implied will and its role in the formation of contracts. Tehran: Khorsandi Publications. [In Persian] 2. Jafari‑Nejad, M. (2016). Pre‑contractual liability in Iranian law. Tehran: Mizan Publications. [In Persian] 3. Katouzian, N. (2013). General rules of contracts (Vol. 1). Tehran: Sherkat‑e Sahami‑ye Entehshar. [In Persian] 4. Karimi, (2014). The role of custom in interpreting the silence of contracting parties. [In Persian] 5. Moradi, H. (2015). Good faith in contract law. Tehran: Dadgostar Publications. [In Persian] 6. Nasiri, A. (2018). Civil liability arising from pre‑contractual negotiations. Tehran: Mizan Publications. [In Persian] 7. Sadat‑Nia, F. (2019). Legitimate reliance in contract law. Tehran: Jangal Publications. [In Persian] 8. Shahidi, M. (2011). Formation of contracts and obligations. Tehran: Majd Publications. [In Persian] 9. Smith, S. A. (2012). Contract theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10. Terré, F. (2013). Droit civil: Les obligations. Paris: Dalloz.11. Zare, (2021). A comparative study of information disclosure in the pre‑contractual stage. [In Persian] 12. Zimmermann, R. (2008). The law of obligations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.SadafHaghparastAfshin GhafghaziYasra Tha'alabi38202612113610.66224/ahrar.53299.6.12.121http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/53299http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53299http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53299http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53299http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53299http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53299http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53299http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/532991. Asghari Aqmashhadi, F., & Abdi, Y. (2011). Jurisprudential and legal status of gender reassignment. Journal of Islamic Jurisprudence and Law, 1(2), 1–17. [In Persian] 2. Babalou, V. (2016). Examination of gender reassignment in Iran. In Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Research in Science and Technology. Saint Petersburg, Russia.3. Badrkhani, N. (2024). Gender reassignment in the fourth generation of human rights. 189–206. [In Persian] 4. Khatooni, Z. (n.d.). Examination of trans individuals in the law of the Islamic Republic of Iran. [In Persian] 5. Khomeini, R. (n.d.). Tahrir al‑Wasila. Tehran.[In Persian] 6. Karimi Nia, M. M. (2011). The effect of gender reassignment on the continuation of marriage. Journal of Medical Jurisprudence, 2–3(5–6), 122–149. [In Persian] 7. Karimi Nia, M. M. (2017). Examination of Qur’anic evidences regarding the ruling of gender reassignment and its jurisprudential effects. Qur’an, Jurisprudence and Islamic Law, 3(6), 109–145. [In Persian] 8. Karimi Nia, M. M. (2011). Gender reassignment. Tehran. [In Persian] 9. Khanehkeshi, H. (2020). Examination of dowry and alimony after gender reassignment of spouses, 61–78. [In Persian] 10. Nojavan, D. (2009). Jurisprudential and legal foundations of gender reassignment. Medical Law Quarterly, 3(9), 149–189. [In Persian] 11. Rahmati, M. (2012). A jurisprudential and legal examination of the impact of gender reassignment of spouses on the marriage contract. Medical Law Quarterly, 5(19), 169–186. [In Persian] 12. Rezaei Fumani, A., & Ayati, S. M. R. (2014). The status of gender reassignment in Iranian law and the common law legal system. Islamic Jurisprudence and Law Foundations, 7(14), 113–140. [In Persian] 13. Roshan, M., & Torabi Ziaratgahi, A. (2016). Effects of gender reassignment after marriage in Iranian law and Imamiyyah jurisprudence. Legal Teachings of Govah, 3(2), 5–32. [In Persian] 14. Sanaei, S., & Fasihizadeh, A. (n.d.). Gender reassignment and its jurisprudential and legal effects on spousal relations. [In Persian] 15. Torabi, M. (2020). Gender reassignment: A study on gender reassignment and its religious ruling. [In Persian] 16. Wikifeqh. (n.d.). https://wikifeqh.ir[In Persian] RsoulFazelniyariKazem Khosravi38202613715110.66224/ahrar.53300.6.12.137http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/53300http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53300http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53300http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53300http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53300http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53300http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53300http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/533001. Ahmadi, K. (2014). The effect of indivisible judgments at different stages of challenging judgments. Legal Research Quarterly, 69. [In Persian] 2. Doris, M. (2019). Challenges of enforcing default judgments in Iranian courts. Journal of Research and Studies in Islamic Sciences, 1(3).3. Hormazi, K. (2017). Joinder and severance of claims and its comparison with dividing a single claim into multiple claims in Iranian and French law. Private Law Research Quarterly, 23. [In Persian] 4. Mohseni, H. (2018). The concept and civil procedure of indivisible and inseparable claims and judgments. Private Law Quarterly, 15(2). [In Persian] 5. Movahhedian, G. R. (2022). Indivisible claims and judgments with an emphasis on judicial practice. Comparative Law Research Quarterly, 5(16). [In Persian] 6. Pour Ostad, M. (2017). Divisibility and indivisibility of civil claims: A comparative study in French law. Comparative Law Studies, 8(2). [In Persian] 7. Shams, A. (2024). Advanced civil procedure (Vol. 2). Tehran: Dorak. [In Persian] 8. Tahmasebi, A. (2015). Analysis of civil procedure rules in cases involving multiple parties to a claim. Judicial Law Journal, 81(98). [In Persian] Sogand Khoda BandehFatemeh Mahdavi38202615217110.66224/ahrar.53329.6.12.152http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/53329http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53329http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53329http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53329http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53329http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53329http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53329http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/533291. Abassi, M., & Teymouri, M. (2023). A review of the ethical and legal challenges of applying artificial intelligence in the health system. Journal of Medical Ethics, 17(48), 1–11. [In Persian] 2. Abualruz, H., Yasin, I., Abu Sabra, M. A., Abunab, H. Y., Azayzeh, R., Zubidi, Y., Emad, S., & Alriyati, B. (2025). The role of artificial intelligence in enhancing triage decisions in healthcare settings: A systematic review. Applied Nursing Research, 86, 152024. [In Persian] 3. Almulihi, Q. A., Alquraini, A. A., Almulihi, F. A. A., Alzahid, A. A., Al Qahtani, S. S. A. J., Almulhim, M., Alqhtani, S. H. S., Alnafea, F. M. N., Mushni, S. A. S., Alaqil, N. A., Assiri, M. I. F., & Maghraby, N. H. (2024). Applications of artificial intelligence and machine learning in emergency medicine triage: A systematic review. Medical Archives, 78(3), 198–206.4. Alomari, L. M., Alshammari, M. M., Arbaeen, A. O., Alshehri, R. A., & Almalki, H. S. (2025). Safety and accuracy of AI in triaging patients in the emergency department. International Journal of Emergency Medicine, 18(1), 243.5. Bagheri, P. (2024). Legal personality and civil liability of artificial intelligence: Legal challenges and solutions. Journal of Law and Legal Policies. [In Persian] 6. Bottomley, D., & Thaldar, D. (2023). Liability for harm caused by AI in healthcare: An overview of the core legal concepts. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 14, 1297353.7. Camacho Clavijo, S. (2024). AI assessment tools for decision-making on telemedicine: Liability in case of mistakes. Discover Artificial Intelligence, 4, 24.8. Delshad, S., Dontaraju, V. S., & Chengat, V. (2021). Artificial intelligence-based application provides accurate medical triage advice when compared to consensus decisions of healthcare providers. Cureus, 13(8), e16956. [In Persian] 9. Golparvar, B. (2025). The impacts of artificial intelligence on medical law. In Proceedings of the 14th International and National Conference on Management, Accounting and Law Studies, Tehran, Iran.10. Hamedi, H., Moradi, A., & Aghaei Bejestani, M. (2024). Civil liability arising from the use of intelligent robots in the field of medical science. Journal of Law and Theology, 3(2). [In Persian] 11. Iravani, A., Khorsand, A., & Mohammadi, S. B. (2025). Jurisprudential foundations of civil liability arising from the application of artificial intelligence. Journal of Fiqh and Law.12. Jalali, A. A., & Ghadim Zamaneh, N. (2024). Interaction between artificial intelligence and the right to privacy of medical data. Journal of Law and Higher Education, 2(3). [In Persian] 13. Nateghi, Z., & Badini, H. (2024). An analytical view of civil liability arising from the use of artificial intelligence in medicine with a comparative study. Journal of Medical Law, 18(59), 99–112. [In Persian] 14. Nikbakht Nasrabadi, M., & Abbasi, M. (2024). Feasibility of civil liability arising from the application of artificial intelligence in the medical field. Journal of Health Law. [In Persian] 15. Price, W. N. II, Gerke, S., & Cohen, I. G. (2024). Liability for use of artificial intelligence in medicine. In S. B. Solaiman & I. G. Cohen (Eds.), Research Handbook on Health, AI and the Law (Chap. 9). Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.16. Tahernejad, A., Sahebi, A., Salehi Sahl Abadi, A., & Safari, M. (2024). Application of artificial intelligence in triage in emergencies and disasters: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 24, 3203. [In Persian] Elaheh Salehi Ghesmati AkbarImanpour38202617219410.66224/ahrar.53354.6.12.172http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/53354http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53354http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53354http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53354http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53354http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53354http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53354http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/533541. Asadi, M., & Rezapour Shakouhi, R. (2023). Sexual disorders of spouses and their jurisprudential and legal effects on annulment of marriage. International Interdisciplinary Conference, 3514–3533. [In Persian] 2. Ebrahimi, S., & Sadri, A. (2024). The nature of the option of misrepresentation in marriage. Scientific Quarterly, 9(29), 1–20. [In Persian] 3. Habibi Tar, J. (2024). Analysis of the nature of dissolution due to hardship of the husband with reference to Egyptian personal status law. Scientific Research Journal, 1, 1–15. [In Persian] 4. Hosseini, S. A. (2022). Causes of annulment of marriage and duress from the perspective of the jurisprudential system. Scientific Research Journal, 20, 307–328. [In Persian] 5. Iran Civil Code. (1928). Civil Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran, with later amendments. [In Persian] 6. Iran Constitution. (1989). Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran. [In Persian] 7. Javanmard Farrokhani, A., & Ebrahimi, S. (2024). Obligation of spouses to treat diseases causing annulment of marriage. 2, 227–247. [In Persian] 8. Mazandarani, M., & Salehi, A. (2024). Relative possibility of the effect of news on annulment of marriage and return. Political Law Scientific Journal, 210, 5–32. [In Persian] 9. Mehrikhani, A., & Ebrahimi, S. (2024). The effect of human papillomavirus disease on annulment of marriage by the husband. Legal and Research Journal, 18(59), 613–625. [In Persian] 10. Moghadam, N. (2022). Legal defects permitting annulment of marriage. Scientific Research Publishing, LSC, 55, 91. [In Persian] 11. Mousavian, A., A'zam Sadat, & Saberian, M. (2024). Feasibility of annulment of marriage based on non-explicit defects. 19, 93–118. [In Persian] 12. Rezaei, L., & Rezvani, A. H. (2024). Possibility of expanding or restricting defects leading to annulment of marriage in jurisprudence. Contemporary Iranian Political‑Social Developments Journal, 3, 328–350. [In Persian] 13. Roh, M. R. (2024). Non‑financial rights of spouses and their misuse by denying their instances. Political Science Journal, 3, 227–247.14. Sabahani, A. (2021). Effects of annulment of marriage in Iranian, French, and English law. 9, 125–137. [In Persian] 15. Sadeghi, T. (2017). International Conference on Innovation in Humanities and Cultural Studies. [In Persian] 16. Salarinejad, M. (2024). Existing diseases as grounds for annulment of marriage. Journal of Jurisprudence and Law, 32, 44–59. [In Persian] 17. Seyyed Hassan Mousavi‑far, Yazdani, Gh. R., & Haqpanah, R. (2024). Annulment of marriage after puberty and duress. Jurisprudential Research, 2, 341–344. [In Persian] 18. Shabani, K., & Mohsen, M. (2019). [Article]. Journal of Jurisprudence and Legal Studies, 3, 80–107. [In Persian] 19. Sobhani, A. K. (2025). Dowry of the husband after dissolution of marriage under Afghan law. 7, 134–149. [In Persian] 20. Taheri Salari, F., & Vatanparast, F. (2018). Effect of the no‑harm rule in extending defects permitting annulment of marriage. Scientific Research Journal, 4, 114–139. [In Persian] Nasim RoshanfekryasamanyaghobiAmbar Dwi Erawati38202619521210.66224/ahrar.53355.6.12.195http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/53355http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53355http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53355http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53355http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53355http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53355http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/53355http://ahrarlawjournal.ir/fa/Article/Download/533551. Akhtandi, Z. (2021). An introduction to the challenges of artificial intelligence in the field of civil liability. Harvard University.2. Alibi, M., Fallah, N., & Golehban, A. (2021). Civil liability resulting from violation of privacy rights: A comparative study in the legal systems of Iran and the United States. Health Law Journal in Health Studies. [In Persian] 3. Alimi, M., & Teimouri, A. (2022). A review of the ethical and legal implications of artificial intelligence applications in the healthcare system. Journal of Medical Ethics, 17(43), 1–11. [In Persian] 4. Aqa Amini Fashami, H., Hamidi, M., & Mansouri, S. J. (2024). A comparative legal study of artificial intelligence in supportive care in Islamic law and the comparative research of Western law. [In Persian] 5. Danaefar, Z., & Ardebili, H. (2024). An analytical perspective on the civil liability of physicians using artificial intelligence in medicine. Journal of Legal Studies, 18(59). [In Persian] 6. Faqihi, M., Bakhtiari, A., & Fazl, S. (2024). Iran's criminal policy approach towards the use of artificial intelligence in the health sector. Legal Journal of the Medical Council of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 24(3), 110–121. [In Persian] 7. Griffin, F. (2021). Artificial intelligence and liability in health care. Health Matrix, 31, 65.8. Gurupur, V. P., & Shelleh, M. (2021). Machine learning analysis for data incompleteness (madi): Analyzing the data completeness of patient records using a random variable approach to predict the incompleteness of electronic health records. IEEE Access, 9, 95994-96001. [In Persian] 9. Holzinger, A., Langs, G., Denk, H., Zatloukal, K., & Müller, H. (2019). Causability and explainability of artificial intelligence in medicine. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, 9(4), e1312.10. Hosseini Maraghei, M. F. (1997). Direct causation (Mubashirat) and indirect causation (Tasbib) (Vol. 2). Islamic Publications Office. [In Persian] 11. Katouzian, N. (1995). Non-contractual obligations (Vol. 1). University of Tehran Press. [In Persian] 12. Katouzian, N., et al. (2019). Physicians' liability in medical errors. Journal of Medical Law and Medical Ethics, 11(4). [In Persian] 13. Khajeh, S. (2025). Legal and jurisprudential investigation of the causes exonerating physicians' liability in the Iranian legal system. National Conference on Modern Research in Humanities, Tehran. [In Persian] 14. Nikbakht Nasrabadi, M., Ali, M. F., & Mohammadreza (2024). Civil liability arising from the use of artificial intelligence in surgery: An interpretation of the concept of fault. Medical Law Journal, 18(59), 903–919. [In Persian] 15. Nikfar, N., & Ramazan-Arm, N. (2026). Investigating private law solutions for artificial intelligence. Journal of Public Law and Intellectual Property. [In Persian] 16. Rashvand-e Haqiqi, S. A., Ebadi, H., & Ali, H. (2024). Feasibility study of the use of artificial intelligence in judicial proceedings or the non-liability of doctors in AI implementation regarding privacy protection. Medical Law Journal, 19(60). [In Persian] 17. Safai, S. H., & Rahimi, H. (2016). Civil liability: Non-contractual obligations. Samt Publications. [In Persian] 18. Salimi Farad, S. M. (2024). Civil liability resulting from violation of the judge's sovereignty law in medical errors within the context of private law of artificial intelligence. Medical Law Journal, 204–214. [In Persian] 19. Sarkik, K., Mahmoudi, M., & Samadi, K. (2024). Artificial intelligence in medicine: Ethical evaluation, developments, and issues. Applied Ethics Studies, 80, 43–75. [In Persian] 20. Zakerinia, H. (2021). Civil liability of artificial intelligence in the law of European Union countries. University of Shiraz. [In Persian]